Chapter 2. Agricultural management, livestock and food security

Over the centuries, farmers from the countries bordering the Mediterranean have developed a variety of agricultural practices, providing a wide array of commodities that have made the Mediterranean diet world famous. However, climate change projections reveal that some of these practices are at risk because of the expected drier and hotter conditions coupled with soil and water constraints, as well as a higher fire frequency threat. Nevertheless, adapting to climate hazards has long been part of farming practice in this area. The growing of pulses or other drought-tolerant crops (olives, grapes, almonds, etc.), transhumance and the use of rangelands or tree fodder by livestock, as well as water harvesting techniques, are among some of the age-old solutions to erratic rainfall or hot summers. In this chapter, we highlight some of the challenges facing agriculture in the Mediterranean and provide a series of examples of how agricultural and livestock management can be better adapted to climate change.Reliable metrics are necessary to enable the impact of climate change to be assessed and targeted agricultural policies to be designed. Long-term environmental observatories are essential to improve land management in the context of global change. Modelling the projected effects of current climatic trends shows that regional agricultural import dependence will increase as the impacts of climate change become more severe. Small ruminants (sheep, goats) have a good adaptation potential and can play a food security net role under climate change with a view to responding to the local food demand that emerges with new life styles. Local small ruminant breeds are adapted to harsh environments but this unique genetic heritage is now endangered. Perennial forage grasses are an alternative to cereals due to lower input requirement, year-round soil cover and optimal use of water. Mediterranean fruit trees, although well adapted, face increases in temperature and soil salinity as well as decreases in water availability. They will require improvements such as selection of early flowering varieties (olive), assessment of best pollinating conditions (figs) and salt tolerant rootstock (citrus).Depuis des siècles, les agriculteurs de la zone méditerranéenne ont mis au point une large gamme de pratiques agricoles à l’origine de productions qui ont rendu le régime alimentaire méditerranéen célèbre dans le monde entier. Les projections climatiques montrent cependant que des risques de sécheresse et de température élevée, associés à des contraintes concernant le sol, l’eau et les dangers d’incendie, menacent certaines de ces pratiques. L’adaptation à l’aléa climatique est néanmoins une habitude ancienne dans cette zone. La culture de légumes secs ou d’autres cultures tolérantes à la sécheresse (olives, raisin, amandes, etc.), la transhumance, l’utilisation des terrains de parcours et du fourrage arboré par le bétail, ou encore les techniques de capture de l’eau, font partie de ces solutions ancestrales au problème de la pluviométrie irrégulière ou des étés caniculaires. Dans ce chapitre, nous présentons certains des défis auxquels l’agriculture méditerranéenne est confrontée et nous proposons quelques exemples illustrant l’adaptation de l’agriculture et de l’élevage au changement climatique. Pour évaluer l’impact du changement climatique et concevoir des politiques agricoles appropriées, des mesures fiables sont nécessaires. Pour améliorer la gestion des terres dans un contexte de changement climatique, des observatoires environnementaux à long terme sont indispensables. La modélisation des effets attendus du changement climatique montre que la région deviendra progressivement plus dépendante des importations agricoles. Les petits ruminants (moutons, chèvres) ont un fort potentiel d’adaptation et peuvent jouer un rôle de filet de sécurité alimentaire en accord avec les nouvelles exigences alimentaires liées à de nouveaux styles de vie. Les races locales de petits ruminants sont adaptées à des environnements contraignants mais ce patrimoine génétique est désormais menacé. Les graminées fourragères pérennes représentent une alternative aux céréales en raison de leurs exigences modestes en intrants, de leur capacité à couvrir le sol toute l’année et de leur utilisation optimale de l’eau. Bien qu’ils soient bien adaptés, les arbres fruitiers méditerranéens sont confrontés à l’augmentation de la température et de la salinité du sol ainsi qu’à une diminution des réserves en eau. Ils devront faire l’objet d’améliorations comme la sélection de variétés à floraison précoce (oliviers), la prise en compte des conditions de pollinisation (figuiers) ou le greffage sur des porte-greffes tolérants à la salinité (agrumes)

Long-Term Impacts of Stocking Rate on Soil Carbon Sequestration in Arid Areas of South Africa

Overstocking is one of the most important factors which results in changes of carbon stocks (Reeder and Schuman, 2002) and soil degradation, particularly in sandy soil, vulnerable to degradation through physical erosion. South African (RSA) topsoil is characterized by the low level of organic matter (Du Preez et al. 2011). Like most other African countries, little is known about the level of C sequestration under various grazing strategies in the vast dry grassland areas of RSA. It is well known that long-term studies with various stocking rate would be able to shed light on the level of C sequestration in varying soil types (Peneiro et al. 2010). Although studies have been undertaken concerning impacts of grazing on vegetation dynamics in RSA (Du Toit 2000), only few have focused on soil carbon stocks. Hence, this study was designed to assess impacts of long-term grazing at different stocking rate on carbon sequestration in Grootfontein, South Africa

Prédiction des taux de décomposition des litières végétales par les trais fonctionnels agrégés

Comprendre le fonctionnement des écosystèmes est un enjeu crucial, en particulier dans un contexte de changements globaux. Afin de mieux prédire les processus écosystémiques, j ai testé la précision et les limites des hypothèses du biomass-ratio de Grime (HBMR) et de l annulation idiosyncratique (HAI), cette dernière étant une hypothèse originale de cette thèse. Pour cela, j ai appliqué le principe du biomass-ratio aux traits fonctionnels, en employant la méthode des traits agrégés en communauté, pour estimer la réponse globale des espèces en mélange. La décomposition des litières plurispécifiques constitue un bon modèle biologique, pour lequel je me suis posé les questions suivantes : (1) est-ce que l HBMR prédit bien les taux de décomposition en mélanges plurispécifiques ? ; (2) est-ce que le degré de variabilité de ces taux diminue pour des raisons biologiques avec l augmentation de la richesse spécifique (RS) des mélanges (HAI) ? ; (3) est-ce que la variabilité des taux entre mélanges diminue quand les conditions abiotiques du site deviennent plus limitantes ? ; (4)considérant que les mélanges plus contrastés fonctionnellement sont susceptibles de développer plus d interactions, est-ce que la déviation à la prédiction augmente avec la dispersion fonctionnelle des mélanges( FDis , La liberté & Legendre 2010) ? Cette thèse inclut deux expériences de décomposition en sachets à litières : (1) à Sherbrooke (QC, Canada) avec des microcosmes, impliquant des litières de six espèces d arbres, décomposant seules et en mélanges et (2) sur trois sites au climat contrasté dans la région de Clermont-Ferrand (France) avec des litières de quatre espèces d herbacées, décomposant seules et en mélanges. Les résultats montrent des déviations positives et négatives par rapport aux taux prédits, mais l HBMR décrit bien la réponse moyenne des litières plurispécifiques. Bien que l HAI ait été rejetée, les résultats montrent une convergence des taux observés vers les taux prédits quand (1) la RS des mélanges augmente, (2)l échelle spatiale augmente et (3) le climat est plus limitant pour la décomposition. Enfin, malgré des corrélations entre FDis et interactions entre espèces dans les litières, cette relation n est pas généralisable et l hypothèse de corrélation positive entre FDis et déviation à l HBMR a été rejetée.Understanding ecosystem functioning is a key goal in ecology, especially in the context of global changes. To better predict ecosystem processes, I tested the accuracy and the limits of Grime s biomass-ratio (BMRH) hypothesis and a novel idiosyncratic annulment (IAH) hypothesis. I applied the biomass-ratio to functional traits, using the community-weighted means (CWM) to estimate the global response of species in mixtures. I studied the decomposition of litter species mixtures as a biological model and asked the following questions : (1) does the BMRH predict well the decomposition rates of mixed species litters ? ; (2) does the degree of variability of these rates decrease with increasing species richness (SR) beyond that expected from purely mathematical causes (IAH) ? ; (3) does the variability of rates between mixtures decrease with less favourable abiotic conditions for decomposition ? ; (4) as more functionally contrasted mixtures are expected to develop more interactions, does the deviation from prediction increase with increasing functional dispersion in mixtures ( FDis , Laliberté & Legendre 2010) ? This study involves two decomposition experiments using litterbags : (1) at Sherbrooke (QC, Canada), in microcosms, involving litters from six tree species, decomposed alone and in mixtures and (2) in three climatically contrasted sites in the region of Clermont-Ferrand (France) with litters from four herbaceous species, decomposed alone and in mixtures. Despite both positive and negative deviations from expectation occurring at all levels of SR, the BMRH well described the average response of mixed species litters. Although I rejected the IAH, the results showed a convergence to the predicted values based on CWM with (1) increasing the SR in mixtures, (2) increasing the spatial scale of the study and (3) a less favourable climate to decomposition. Finally, although there was a correlation between litter interactions and functional divergence, this relationship was not generalizable and I rejected the hypothesis of a positive correlation between FDis and the deviations from BMRH.CLERMONT FD-Bib.électronique (631139902) / SudocSudocFranceF

Role of Grasslands and Grassland Management for Biogeochemical Cycles and Biodiversity. Setting up Long-Term Manipulation Experiments in France

Land use for grassland is recognised to have some beneficial effects for biodiversity and the environment: (i) regulation of the water cycle and protection of soils against erosion, (ii) accumulation of organic matter in soil and sequestration of atmospheric C, (iii) regulation of the N cycle and attenuation of the risk for N leaching, (iv) recycling of nutrients and improvement of soil quality, (v) improvement of biodiversity of vegetation, soil microbes and micro- and meso-fauna. All these effects depend upon the management of the grassland: cutting vs. grazing, stocking density, level of N inputs. Management decisions often result from short- term objectives, whereas the soil-vegetation interactions are long-term processes. Therefore, a steady state is usually not reached, which makes it difficult to determine the overall environmental effects of changes in land use and in grassland management

Managing Grassland Systems in a Changing Climate: The Search for Practical Solutions

By the end of the XXIst century, a global temperature rise between 1.5 and 4°C compared to 1980-1999 and CO2 concentrations in the range 550-900 ppm are expected, together with an increased frequency of extreme climatic events (heat waves, droughts, and heavy rain) that is likely to negatively affect grassland production and livestock systems in a number of world regions. Grassland management has a large potential to mitigate livestock greenhouse gas emissions at a low (or even negative) cost, by combining a moderate intensification, the restoration of degraded pastures and the development of silvo-pastoral systems. Climate change vulnerability will be highest in regional hot spots with high exposure to climatic extremes and low adaptive capacity, such as extensive systems in dryland areas. Biome shifts, with expansion or contraction of the grassland biome, are projected by models. Resistance, resilience and transformation strategies can be used for grassland adaptation.With sown grasslands, adaptation options include changes in forage species (e.g. use of C4 grasses and of annual species) and genotypes and the use of grass-legume mixtures. Grazing management can be adapted to increase the resilience of plant communities to climatic variability. Our understanding of the synergies and trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation in the grassland sector is still limited and requires further research. Provided this understanding is gained, climate smart grassland systems that sustainably increase productivity and resilience (adaptation), reduce greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation), and enhance food security and development could be promoted. By reducing productivity gaps and increasing livestock production efficiency, they would also contribute to mitigate climate change from tropical deforestation and expansion of grasslands into savannahs